INTRODUCTION
Xun Kuang's "Contra Twelve Philosophers" criticizes those philosophers whose doctrines and influence he regarded as dangerous to society. In doing so, he provides a rare survey of currents of contemporary thought. Together with the "World of Thought" of the Zhuangzi and the "Eminence in Learning" in the Hanfeizi, this book offers important insight into the intellectual life of late Warring States China. One might understand the title to be harsher than "contra," if one takes this book to be in the Mohist polemical tradition. As such it would be a successor to Mo Di's "Condemnation of the Ru" and should be considered his "Condemnation of Twelve Philosophers."
Xun Kuang attacks the twelve philosophers and the six philosophical positions their theories represent because they confuse the world with false notions of right and wrong and of what produces order and what anarchy. The Chinese terms for "right" and "wrong" (shi/fei) embrace not only the moral distinction but also the epistemological distinction between "what is the case" and "what is not the case." Here Xun Kuang undoubtedly means the epistemological as well as the moral distinction since he advocates in his "On the Correct Use of Names" the rectification of names. Like Nietzsche, Xun Kuang had no use for false but beautiful notions that lead to error and anarchy.
¶6.1
Some men of the present generation1 cloak pernicious
persuasions in beautiful language and present elegantly composed
but treacherous doctrines2 and so create disorder and
anarchy in the world. Such men are personally insidious and ostentatious,
conceited and vulgar,3 yet they spread through the
whole world their confused ignorance of wherein lies the distinction
between right and wrong and between order and anarchy.
1This means the twilight years of the Warring States period, probably after 256.
2"Treacherous statements" are defined in ¶5.6 as opinions inconsistent with the teachings of the Early Kings and not in accord with ritual and moral principles.
¶6.2
Some men give free rein to their emotions and innate nature,3 are content with unrestrained passion and an overbearing manner,4 and behave like animals. They are unfit for employment to put usages in conformity with good form5 or bring success to government. Nonetheless, some of what they advocate has a rational basis, and their statements have perfect logic, enough indeed to deceive and mislead the ignorant masses.6 Such men are Tuo Xiao and Wei Mou.
3Xun Kuang defines the "emotional disposition" of man as embracing, among other things, the "likes and dislikes, delights and angers, griefs and joys."
4This part of the sentence is repeated in "Man's Nature is Evil" where Xun Kuang observes that "to give free rein to your emotions and innate nature and be content to indulge every excess of passion, but to disregard ritual principles and morality is to be a petty man." Li Si quotes a passage from Shen Buhai, which says that if the ruler who possesses the empire fails to indulge himself in every excess of passion, then he has allowed the empire to become a shackles on him (SJ, 87.28). Creel, Shen Puhai, p. 381, n.9, argues that the original meaning of the term in the teachings of Shen Buhai was "unconstrained action, with no bad moral sense," a sense attested in Zhuangzi, 6 "Dazongshi," 3.13b, where it means "carefree."
5The phrase he wen occurs in ¶22.3e below where it refers to discourse that conforms to proper patterns and social usages that conform to the requirements of ritual and moral principles. The phrase here has also been taken to mean "bring concord to civilization."
6That is, they were able to offer facts in evidence to support their doctrines, could give them a foundation, observed the forms of argumentation of the day, used discriminations, and were skilled in debate.
¶6.3
Some men repress their emotions and innate nature. Theirs is an excessively narrow path and a harsh and intricate way, and they foolishly consider that the differences that separate them from other men constitute their superiority over others. But they are adequate neither to the task of bringing concord to the great mass of the people nor to that of clarifying the fundamental distinctions in society. Nonetheless, some of what they advocate has a rational basis, and their statements have perfect logic, enough indeed to deceive and mislead the ignorant masses. Such men are Chen Zhong and Shi Qiu.
¶6.4
Some men do not know how to unify the world nor how to establish the "evaluations and designations" for the nation,7 but, rather, elevate the principles of merit and utility, place great stress on frugality and economy, and they ignore gradations of rank and status. They are unwilling to admit that there are differences that must be explained and that there must be social distance between the lord and his subjects. Nonetheless some of what they advocate has a rational basis, and their statements have perfect logic, enough indeed to deceive and mislead the ignorant masses. Such men are Mo Di and Song Xing.
7This refers to ritual principles. One "evaluates" each thing and then "designates" its proper use by ritual principles (¶11.9). The term "designates" refers particularly to the "modes of identification" which are used to distinguish rich and poor, insignificant and important (¶10.3). The sage can "evaluate" and "designate" for the whole world (¶18.8).
¶6.5
Some men honor the principle of law but are themselves without law. They deprecate the principle of "following along with the usages of the past" and are fond of innovation.8 They obtain a hearing from the ruling class and a following among the unsophisticated.9 On every occasion their doctrines are perfected in form, well-composed, and fully documented, but if one turns around and closely examines what they say, it turns out to be masterfully grandiose but to lack any basic theme or main topic to which it returns. It is impossible for them to provide a classical norm for the state or to fix social distinctions. Nonetheless some of what they advocate has a rational basis, and their statements have perfect logic, enough indeed to deceive and mislead the ignorant masses. Such men are Shen Dao and Tian Pian.
8The point is that they condemn adherence to the principle that "the gentleman is a follower and not a creator" (reported of the Ru in Mozi, 25 "Fei ming," I , 9.21a), for like the Mohists, they are fond of innovation. Yu Xingwu emends for parallelism with the preceding phrase, for "who elevate the principle of 'following along' with the usages of the past but are fond of innovation." In Yu's understanding they do not deprecate the principle, but rather feign adherence to it.
9Following Wang Niansun. Yang Liang understands "when they were among the upper classes, they accommodated themselves to their views; when they were among the lower, they went along with their ideas." This understanding of the text is undoubtedly influenced by the statement in the Zhuangzi, 33 "Tianxia" (10.15b16a), that Shen Dao "changed with the circumstances," "was concerned only with self-survival," and "went where he was pushed and followed where he was led."
¶6.6
Some men do not model their doctrines after the Early Kings and do not affirm ritual or moral principles, but are fond of treating abstruse theories and playing with shocking propositions.10 Although formulated with extreme exactness, their propositions concern matters of no urgency11 and their theories, though defended by discriminations, are quite useless.12 Although they treat many topics, their results are meager, and they cannot be considered to have provided any guiding rules or ordering norms for government.13 Nonetheless some of what they advocate has a rational basis, and their statements have perfect logic, enough indeed to deceive and mislead the ignorant masses. Such men are Hui Shi and Deng Xi.
10Compare Zhuangzi , 33 "Tianxia," 10.22b: "Hui Shi employed his knowledge to engage others in discriminations and propounded abstrusities for the debaters of the world."
11Xun Kuang quoted examples of such propositions in ¶3.1 above.
12Zhuangzi, 33 "Tianxia," 10.20a, remarks that Hui Shi was a man of many methods whose books would fill five carriages, but in the end, for all his many talents, he wandered about without achieving anything, to be known only as a skillful debater.
¶6.714
Some men follow the model of the Early Kings in a fragmentary way, but they do not understand its guiding principles. Still their abilities are manifold, their memory great,15 and their experience and knowledge both varied and broad. They have initiated a theory for which they claim great antiquity, calling it the Five Processes Theory. Peculiar and unreasonable in the extreme, it lacks proper logical categories.16 Mysterious and enigmatic, it lacks a satisfactory theoretical basis. Esoteric and laconic in its statements, it lacks adequate explanations.17 To give their propositions a cloak of respectability and to win respect and veneration for them, they claim:
These doctrines represent the genuine words of the gentleman of former times. Zisi provided the tune for them, and Mencius harmonized it.
The stupid, indecisive, deluded Ru of today enthusiastically welcome these notions unaware that they are false.18 They pass on what they have received, believing that, on account of these theories, Confucius and Zigong19 would be highly esteemed by later generations. It is in just this that they offend against Zisi and Mencius.20
14This paragraph has caused much of the opprobrium from which Xun Kuang has suffered since the canonization of Mencius in the Song period.
15Or, "their ambition great."
16Text pi indicates an obliqueness that departs from orthodoxy or common sense; wei suggests what departs from reasonable standards; wu lei µ implies that such theories lack the classifications and categories that are proper and necessary to logical truths.
17Yang Liang takes shuo in the common sense "explain, explicate," but the context requires a more philosophical meaning, "theorize; offer a theoretical basis." Text bi suggests that only the initiated can grasp the true nature of the doctrine; jie means providing an exegesis in rational, factual terms.
18The usual interpretation is that the direct quotation includes only the statement about "the gentleman of former times" (meaning Confucius) and that the statement about Zisi and Mencius is the direct observation of Xun Kuang. My interpretation requires that one take "provided a tune for them" (the words of the gentleman of former times) in the sense of "initiated" and "harmonized" in the sense of "expanded." The meaning of the passage is that such persons contended that Confucius began the doctrine (provided the words), Zisi elaborated upon it (provided the tune), and Mencius systematized (harmonized it). The use of "provided a tune" and "harmonized" is thus akin to that of "song" and "dance" in the Mohist logical chapters, where "song" means to present as a main thesis and "dance" to add a secondary thesis. (See, A.C. Graham, "Later Mohist Treatises on Ethics and Logic," Asia Major, NS 17/2 (1972), pp. 15-23, 183.) Both sentences should be taken as a direct quotation of the claim Xun Kuang is rejecting and not as his own judgment. In ¶18.1 below, Xun Kuang observes that the ruler is the "singing master" who provides the lead to which the people respond.
19The text here reads Ziyou, which is anomalous since he is severely criticized in 6.13 below. Kubo Ai and Guo Songdao suggest that the text should read Zigong.
20In the other interpretation, this should read "this was the crime of Zisi and Mencius." Arthur Waley, Three Ways, p. 205, translates: "Such people have done a grave injustice" to Zisi and Mencius, citing the usage of zui apud Mengzi, 6A.7.
¶6.8
If a man21 combined specific methods with general strategies, made what he said equal what he did, united guiding principles with the proper categories for each thing, and assembled the most talented heroes of the world, informing them of the greatness of antiquity22 and teaching them perfect obedience, then by merely facing toward the south wall of his room and sitting upon his mat,23 the full array of forms and outward signs of the sage king would gather about him, and because of him the customs of a tranquil age would develop abundantly.24 The practitioners of the six theories could not gain entry to his court, and men like these twelve philosophers could not associate with him. Though he lacked so much as a pinpoint of land, kings and dukes could not rival his fame. Should he once occupy the position of grand officer, a single ruler could not keep him to himself, and a single state could not contain him.25 The greatness of his reputation would exceed that of the feudal lords, each of whom would long to employ him as their minister.26 Even such a sage does not always gain a position of power. Such were Confucius and Zigong.
If a man unifies the whole empire, controls28 the myriad things, rears and nourishes the common people,29 benefits the whole world universally-so that wherever his influence reaches or knowledge of him penetrates,30 none will but follow and submit to him-and if the practitioners of the six theories instantly become silent and men like these twelve philosophers are converted, then a sage has attained power. Such were Shun and Yu.
With what task should the humane man of today occupy himself? On the one hand, he should model himself after the regulations of Shun and Yu; and on the other, model himself after the moral principles manifested by Confucius and Zigong, thereby making it his task to silence the theories of the twelve philosophers. When this has been done, then harm to the world is eliminated, the undertakings of the humane man are completed, and the footprints of the sage kings are made visible.31
21The subject of this sentence, as often in Chinese, is unstated. Traditionally it has been assumed to be the sage ruler, but the context of the paragraph means that it applies not only to sage rulers such as Shun and Yu, but also to sages such as Confucius and Zigong who never ruled.
22HSWZ reads "of the great Way"; a cliche for an unusual reading.
23The allusion here is to the story that sage ancestor Shun simply sat in his room playing the lute and singing the "Song of the South Wind," yet the world was well-ordered. Following Yang Liang on text aoyao, meaning "southwest and southeast corners of a room." This presumably refers to the position of the person facing south, that is, assuming the position of a ruler or teacher, who always faced south (subjects or students faced north). This is the basis of the traditional view that the allusion is to a sage ruler. An alternate view is that he merely stays in his room, yet because he is a sage understands everything.
24The idea is that a true sage by accumulating his inner power (de) and by assuming the ritually magical position of sitting facing south, causes everything about him to change through his sympathetic resonance, just as one musical instrument will cause others to sound or as the lodestone attracts particles to it. The presence of the sage's inner power manifests itself in external signs which can be seen in the forms (wen) and outward signs which others recognize. The ritual objects of rulers were intended to display the excellence of their inner power. This could be seen in the ornaments of distinction on the ruler's robes, in the tinkling of the bells of his chariot, and in the heavenly bodies displayed on his flags and standards. See LY, 8.19 and 5.12; Zuo, Huan 2.
25Since this paragraph refers to Confucius and Zigong, some ancient interpreters of the text (quoted by Yang Liang) took this to mean that as they did not recognize his worthiness, such a sage would be without a country, forced to wander from place to place as did Confucius.
27The translation follows the reading the edition of Gong Shixie. The meaning and punctuation of this sentence is much disputed. This follows the interpretation of an anonymous commentator quoted by Yang Liang. The meaning seems to be that because the sage, though of humble origin, will so increase his reputation, all of the feudal lords will want to make him their minister.
28The word cai connotes not only "regulation" but also "perfecting."
29Following the reading of the Lü and Qian editions.
30Yang Liang paraphrases: "wherever ships and carriages reach; wherever the strength of man penetrates." Cf. ¶8.2.
31Compare ¶5.4 above.
¶6.9
Trusting the trustworthy is trust; suspecting the suspect is also trust. Esteeming the worthy is humaneness; deprecating the unworthy is humaneness as well. Speaking when it is appropriate to do so is knowledge; remaining silent when appropriate is also knowledge. Hence knowing when to remain silent is as important as knowing when to speak. Therefore, a sage, though he speaks often, always observes the logical categories appropriate to what he discusses. A gentleman, though he speaks but seldom, always accords with the model.32 The petty man speaks frequently but in a manner that does not adhere to the model, his thoughts drowning in the verbiage of his idle chatter33 even when he engages in the disciplined discourse of formal discriminations.
Hence labor, though toilsome, which is not a suitable occupation for the people,34 is termed a "dissolute undertaking." Knowledge which does not fit with the standards of the Early Kings, though hard won, is said to be that of a "dissolute mind." Discriminations and theories, illustrations and examples, though clever and sufficient, convenient and profitable, that do not follow the requirements of ritual and moral principles are termed "dissolute theories." The sage kings forbade these three dissolute things.
Those who most threaten public order are men who are wise but engage in daring exploits, who are malefactors with diabolic cleverness, who are skillful yet given to in falseness and deception, who discuss the useless but with formal discriminations, and who deal with concerning matters of no urgency yet use precise investigations.35 The great prohibitions of antiquity were against peculiar conduct engaged in with obstinate persistence, glossing over wrongs with fondness, playing with dissoluteness out of considerations of benefit,36 and subversion of rational order yet engaging in advocacy and using discriminations. The whole world scorns those who have knowledge but lack the model, those that are brave but reckless, those who, though capable of precise discriminations, hold on to perverse principles, those who have an excess of goods but are niggardly in their use,37 those who are fond of debauchery and entice others to it, those who despite adequate material gain still go astray, and those who "carrying a stone on their back" throw themselves away.38
32Yang Liang takes this to mean that the gentleman does not presume to propound original theories on his own authority but always abides by the corpus of the model received from the sages.
33The image is that of one who so overflows with talk that he loses sight of what is fundamental.
34Yang Liang interprets this to refer to the four occupations mentioned in the literature of the period: scholar-knights, merchants, artists and craftsmen, and farmers. (Guanzi, 8 "Youguan," 3.8b and 17 "Bingfa," 6.11b.)
35Wang Niansun emends: "those who are useless but intelligently discriminating, those who concern themselves with matters of no urgency, but are precise in investigating them."
36With Yang Liang text ze "bounty" based on Mao gloss on Shi, Mao 133.
37This list of prohibitions is related to a set promulgated by Confucius when he was director of crime in Lu ("Youzuo," ¶28.2, below).
38This is an allusion to Shentu Di carrying a stone on his back and drowning himself in a river (see "Bugou," ¶3.1).
¶6.10
The Heart of One to Whom the Whole World Would Willingly Submit39
Exalted, highly esteemed, and honored-he does not use these to be arrogant toward others. Astutely intelligent and possessing sagelike wisdom-he does not use these to place others in difficulty. Quick-witted, fluent, agile, and universal in his intellectual grasp-he does not employ40 these to gain precedence over others. Strong, resolute, brave, and daring-he does not use these to cause injury to others. When he does not know, he asks others; when he lacks an ability he studies; and even when he possesses an ability, he always yields to others. Only thusly does a man develop inner power.
39As often in the Xunzi, this functions as a paragraph title.
40With Wang Niansun emend to the readings of the HSWZ and SY parallels. As it stands the text reads "does not wrangle to gain precedence."
When such a man unexpectedly encounters his lord, he devotes himself to observing the protocol appropriate to a minister and subject.41 When he meets a fellow villager, he makes it his object to employ all the courtesy due age and accomplishment. When he encounters an older person, he devotes himself to observing the demeanor of a son or younger brother. When he meets a friend, he devotes himself to showing the appropriate courtesies and rules, polite refusals, and yielding precedence. When he encounters someone of lower station or younger then himself, he devotes himself to the manner appropriate to guidance, instruction, magnanimity, and tolerance. There are none he does not love, none he does not respect, and none with whom he would contend. He is as complete as Heaven and Earth, which embrace the myriad things.42 One who is like this esteems the worthy and is kind to those who are not worthy. Those who do not willingly submit to such a person can only be called eccentric or weird, a rogue or rascal. Though they should be his own son or his younger brother, it is altogether fitting that he should permit the punishment to reach them. An Ode says:43
Is not the Supreme Di Ancestor44 always timely!
Yin does not use the old ways,
but though it lacks old and perfected men,
still it has the corpus of punishments,
yet none will listen to them.
For this the Great Mandate is tumbling down.45
This expresses my meaning.
41Text xiu here has the special sense "to do one 's best about" attested in Zuo, Xiang 4, Zhao 13, 26.
42The HSWZ parallel ends here, adding "one who is like this gives comfort to the aged, cherishes the young, and shows good faith to his friends" (a paraphrase of LY, 5.25) and quoting a different Ode.
43Shi, Greater Odes, "Dang," Mao 255. This ode is traditionally associated with Duke Mu of Shao who used the demise of the Shang dynasty as a warning against the decay of the Royal house of Zhou and the dissolute character of King Li (traditionally r. 877 - 842). The Ode is presented as a song by King Wen warning against the evils of Zhou Xin.
44The main god of the Shang royal cult. He was conceived as above all the other Di ancestors who were the spirits of the departed kings of the dynasty.
45The Zhou regularly used Yin, the name of the capital of the Shang dynasty during its last two centuries, as the name of the dynasty. The men, according to Zheng Xuan, are ministers like Yi Yin who had helped and advised Tang who founded the dynasty. The Great Mandate is that of Heaven by which the royal house of Shang had ruled.
¶6.11
The ancients called "scholar-officials"46 those who exerted themselves with a generous earnestness, made the masses concordant, and took pleasure in riches and honors.47 Such men took delight in dividing and sharing. They kept their distance from offenses and transgressions. They were devoted to their duties and to reasoned order and were ashamed to keep wealth for themselves alone.48
Those who today are called "scholar-official" are base and reckless, given to villainy and anarchy, to self-indulgence and excesses of passion, and to sheer greed. They are offensive and insulting,49 and they lack any sense of ritual principle or moral duty, except when motivated by the desire for positions of power and influence.
The ancients called "scholar-recluse" those who possessed the highest inner power, who were able to obtain Inner Quiet, and who cultivated uprightness, knew destiny, and manifested in their person what was right and true.
Those who today are called "scholar-recluse" lack ability but are said to have ability,50 and lack knowledge but are said to have it. They are insatiably profit-minded but feign desirelessness. They are false and secretly foul in conduct but forceful and lofty in speaking about integrity and prudence. They take the extraordinary as the ordinary, behaving eccentrically and without restraint, out of conceit and self-indulgence.51
46That is, a scholar who was willing to hold office.
47Commentators have frequently suggested that the text here is defective and have proposed emending the text because Yang Liang says it means "he is fond of his Way." Zhong Tai rightly notes that Yang Liang is not explicating the passage, but is commenting on its significance. As Zhong Tai notes, in antiquity seeking after riches and honors as a part of one's service was not considered undesirable, but pandering after them at the expense of ethical principles was. The Zhongyong (¶17.2) says: "Hence possessing the greatest inner power, it could not but be that Shun should obtain the throne, that he should obtain the emoluments that went with it."
48Following Zhong Tai. The gentleman, being ashamed of honors and riches kept to himself alone, divided his salary with his relatives and shared his good fortune with them.
49Literally, "butting and shoving," that is, says Yang Liang, jockeying for positions of power and influence.
50Yang Liang takes this to be reflexive, "but say they possess ability," adducing Shenzi: "If being strong, one causes harm to those who have ability, there will be chaos; if one is said to have ability and does harm to those who lack ability, there will be chaos."
51Following the interpretation of Yang Liang and Karlgren, LC 1857.
¶6.12
There are both some things a scholar and gentleman can do and others they cannot do.52 The gentleman can do what is honorable, but he cannot cause others to be certain to show him honor. He can act in a trustworthy fashion, but he cannot cause others to be sure to trust him. He can act so that he is employable, but he cannot cause others to be certain to use him. Hence, the gentleman is ashamed not to cultivate himself, but he is not ashamed to appear to have flaws. He would be ashamed not to be trustworthy, but he is not ashamed that he does not appear trustable. He would be ashamed to be lacking in ability, but he is not ashamed that he remains unused. For these reasons, he is not seduced by praise and is not made apprehensive by criticism. Rather, he follows the Way in his conduct, truly intent on rectifying himself, and is not swayed or turned away from it by mere external things. One who is like this may be described as a "true gentleman." An Ode says:53
Mildly gentle and reverent men
alone possess the foundation for de inner power.
This expresses my meaning.
52Following Wang Niansun. Early editions place this sentence at the end of the previous paragraph, but it belongs with this paragraph in content.
53Shi, Greater Odes, "Yi ," Mao 256. This Ode is also quoted in ¶3.4.
¶6.13
The Demeanor of the Scholar and Gentleman54
When he plays the role of a father or elder brother, his cap should protrude straight out and his robes be full, his demeanor should be relaxed and his manner should be dignified, grave, inspiring, correct but comfortable to be around, noble and imposing, broadminded, enlightened, and calmly at ease.55 When he plays the role of son or younger brother, his cap should protrude and his robes be full, his demeanor should be attentive, and his manner should be temperate, confident, helpful, honest, constantly striving,56 respectful, exemplary, and unassuming.57
Let me now discuss the conceited manner of your students. Their caps are bent low over their foreheads. Their cap strings are loose and slack. Their manner is insolent and rude. They seem smug and pretentious as they amble about,58 but their eyes dart nervously around. They may seem complacent, comfortable, and settled, but their gaze is confused and frightened. With that excited and flurried air, they betray an inner impurity and foulness through their wide-eyed stares.59 In the midst of official banquets or musical and dance performances, they sit blankly, unaware and unconscious, as though asleep or befuddled.60 In the execution of ritual ceremonies, they are overeager and anxious, unrestrained and wanton. In those trying and bitter functions of official life, they become dispirited and passive, evasive, timorous, and irresolute, lacking integrity and a sense of shame, but rather acting cruelly, disgracefully, and insultingly. Such is the conceited manner of your students.
Their caps bent and twisted, their robes billowing and flowing, they walk with Yu's limp or rush about with Shun's quick walk-such are the base Ru of Zizhang's school.
Wearing their caps in perfectly correct form, maintaining their expression in perfect equanimity, they sit there all day long as though they were about to gag on a bit,61 but say nothing-such are the base Ru of the school of Zixia.
Evasive and timorous, disliking work, lacking integrity, shameless, interested only in food and drink, they insist that "a gentleman naturally would not engage in manual labor"-such are the base Ru of the school of Ziyou.
The gentleman I have described is not like these. When he is at leisure, he is not remiss in his duties. When he is working, he is never indolent. To the ancestral origins and ultimate roots of things, he is responsive to every transformation, modifying as necessary to obtain for each things its proper place. For only in this way can he ultimately become a sage.
54This functions as a paragraph title. The ZT edition reads "desires" in place of "demeanor." The paragraph abounds in rare words of uncertain meaning.
55Cf. LY, 7.36: "The gentleman is calmly at ease."
56Following the reading of the ZT edition. The Lü edition omits the Yang commentary and is defective.
57That is, in his actions the gentleman be like a signal for others. Compare Da Dai liji, 55 "Zengzi zhiyin," II, 5.5a: "Actions are tokens and signals to the whole world."
58Following Guo Xiang apud Zhuangzi, 9 "Mati," 4.7a occurrence of the same phrase.
59Following Yang Liang based on the Shuowen definition; cf. Karlgren GL 244.
60Following Yang Liang; cf. Karlgren LC 1031. Yang understands text ming as "not carefully listening and looking" because of an excessive fondness for the performances which causes them to ignore the details.
82Following Zhong Tai.
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